Populations and Samples
Population - Any set of people or events from which the sample is selected and to which the study results will generalize.

Sample - A group of people or events drawn from a population. A research study is carried out on a sample from a population. The goal is to be able to find out true facts about the sample that will also be true of the population. In order for the sample to truly reflect the population, you need to have a sample that is representative of the population. The best method to use to obtain a representative sample is to randomly select your sample from the population. A study that has a large, randomly selected sample or a carefully matched sample is said to have external validity.


A non-random sample reduces the external validity of the study. Much medical research is done on the patients one sees in the clinic, this is a non-random sample that is not representative of a larger population and will not generalize. Because it will not generalize is not a fatal flaw in the study. A study with a non-random sample still identifies true facts about the sample and perhaps those findings will be true for others as well. It is best to define your population first, and then obtain a random sample.

The sample size required depends on the requirements of the study and size of the population. As a rule the bigger the better. If the sample is too small then the performance of a few individuals can have a big effect on the data, and render the data less representative of the population. 



http://www.sahs.utmb.edu/pellinore/intro_to_research/wad/pop&samp.htm

What Is a Variable?

A variable is something that can be changed, such as a characteristic or value. Variables are generally used in psychology experiments to determine if changes to one thing result in changes to another.

Exam Tips: Interviews vs. Questionnaires

An interview is a conversation, such as one conducted by a reporter, in which facts or statements are elicited from another.

 

Advantages of interviews

The main advantages of interviews are:

• they are useful to obtain detailed information about personal feelings, perceptions and opinions
• they allow more detailed questions to be asked
• they usually achieve a high response rate
• respondents' own words are recorded
• ambiguities can be clarified and incomplete answers followed up
• precise wording can be tailored to respondent and precise meaning of questions clarified (eg for students with English as a Second Language)
• interviewees are not influenced by others in the group
• some interviewees may be less self-conscious in a one-to-one situation. 

 

Disadvantages of interviews

1) they can be very time-consuming: setting up, interviewing, transcribing, analysing, feedback, reporting
2) they can be costly
3) different interviewers may understand and transcribe interviews in different ways.   


Questionnaire
List of a research or survey questions asked to respondents, and designed to extract specific information.

 

Some advantages of questionnaires
 The responses are gathered in a standardised way, so questionnaires are more objective, certainly more so than interviews.

 Generally it is relatively quick to collect information using a questionnaire. However in some situations they can take a long time not only to design but also to apply and analyse (see disadvantages for more information).

 Potentially information can be collected from a large portion of a group. This potential is not often realised, as returns from questionnaires are usually low. However return rates can be dramatically improved if the questionnaire is delivered and responded to in class time.


Some disadvantages of questionnaires

 Questionnaires, like many evaluation methods occur after the event, so participants may forget important issues.

 Questionnaires are standardised so it is not possible to explain any points in the questions that participants might misinterpret. This could be partially solved by piloting the questions on a small group of students or at least friends and colleagues. It is advisable to do this anyway.

 Open-ended questions can generate large amounts of data that can take a long time to process and analyse. One way of limiting this would be to limit the space available to students so their responses are concise or to sample the students and survey only a portion of them.

 Respondents may answer superficially especially if the questionnaire takes a long time to complete. The common mistake of asking too many questions should be avoided.

 Students may not be willing to answer the questions. They might not wish to reveal the information or they might think that they will not benefit from responding perhaps even be penalised by giving their real opinion.
Students should be told why the information is being collected and how the results will be beneficial. They should be asked to reply honestly and told that if their response is negative this is just as useful as a more positive opinion. If possible the questionnaire should be anonymous.

Exam Tips: Quantitative and Qualitative

What Is Quantitative Data?

The term quantitative data is used to describe a type of information that can be counted or expressed numerically. This type of data is often collected in experiments, manipulated and statistically analyzed. Quantitative data can be represented visually in graphs, histograms, tables and charts.
Some examples of quantitative data include exact counts ('there were 789 students who attended the rally') or a type of measurement ('it was 78 degree Fahrenheit yesterday at 2 PM').

What Is Qualitative Data?

Data that approximates or characterizes but does not measure the attributes, characteristics, properties, etc., of a thing or phenomenon. Qualitative data describes whereas quantitative data defines.

CLICK ON COMMENTS FOR INFO ON THE 

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

OF

OBSERVATION

Exam Tips: Primary & Secondary Sources

 What are primary sources?

Primary sources are original records or documents created by someone who lived at the time of the event you are studying. These sources enable you to get as close as possible to what actually happened. Examples of primary sources include: historical manuscripts, parliamentary debates and papers,Bills, Acts, speeches and interviews, letters, diaries, autobiographies,statistical data, films or videos,audio recordings, court and legal documents.


     Why are primary sources useful?

• *Primary sources are invaluable for a number of reasons. They serve as the raw material for serious enquiry.
  *Later sources (termed secondary or tertiary sources) add layers of interpretation which separate you from the actual event. Close reading of primary sources will often allow you to draw your own conclusions.
  *Primary sources are not necessarily objective. They represent the views of specific individuals at a single point in time.
  *Even official records (such as census documents) are not free from bias. If you work extensively with primary sources, you need to develop some rules for critical assessment.                                                                                                                                                      
  
  What is a secondary source?
  A secondary source interprets and analyzes primary sources. These sources are one or more steps removed from the event. Secondary sources may have pictures, quotes or graphics of primary sources in them. Some types of secondary sources include:
   
  
  • PUBLICATIONS: Textbooks, magazine articles, histories, criticisms, commentaries, encyclopedias  
   
  Advantages
  
  Ease of Access
• There are many advantages to using secondary research. This includes the relative ease of access to many sources of secondary data. In the past secondary data accumulation required marketers to visit libraries, or wait for reports to be shipped by mail. Now with the availability of online access, secondary research is more openly accessed. This offers convenience and generally standardized usage methods for all sources of secondary research.                                                      
• Low Cost to Acquire                                                                                                                     The use of secondary data has allowed researchers access to valuable information for little or no cost to acquire. Therefore, this information is much less expensive then if the researchers had to carry out the research themselves.
  
  Disadvantages
  
  Quality of Research
• There are some disadvantages to using secondary research. The originators of the primary research are largely self-governed and controlled by the marketer. Therefore, the secondary research used must be scrutinized closely since the origins of the information may be questionable. Moreover, the researcher needs to take sufficient steps to critically evaluate the validity and reliability of the information provided.
  
  
  Not Timely 
• When using secondary research, one must exercise caution when using dated information from the past. With companies competing in fast changing industries, an out-of-date research reports many have little or no relevance to the current market situation.

Exam Tips: Formal/Informal & Dialectical Variety

When the examiner asks you in what situation or instances would you use formal or informal communication please remember that formal communication is usually used in the professional or business environment; when speaking to teachers, at church, during a job interview etc. Hence it is obvious that Standard English would be the order of the day.

Informal communication, however, is quite the opposite. When speaking to friends at school, siblings at home, etc. the informal type of communication is usually used. You may use slangs and even dialect to communicate. There is no need for you to adhere to the rules or conventions of Standard English.

It is also important that you know about the types 

of

dialectical variety

ACROLECT

The variety of speech that is closest to a standard prestige language, especially in an area in which a creole is spoken. For example, Standard Jamaican English is the acrolect where Jamaican Creole is spoken.

MESOLECT  
A variety of speech that is midway between the acrolect and the basilect (somewhere between Standard English and what some people call the "raw form" of dialect/Creole--the basilect).


BASILECT
The variety of speech that is most remote from the prestige variety, especially in an area where a creole is spoken. This is the "raw" dialect as some people call it. It is the politically and economically weakest dialect becomes the basilect, and often vanishes beneath the pressures of the acrolect.

Exam Tips: Communication Barriers

No matter how good and effective a communicator one maybe, yet the fact is that one does face certain barriers, from time to time, which forces them to work on becoming even more effective in their skills to communicate.Communication barriers are obstacles that prevent us from getting across our message effectively.

Identify the communication barriers below.

 

Click on the comments link below for more on communication barriers.

Exam Tips: Non-Verbal Communication

According to experts, a substantial portion of our communication is nonverbal. Every day, we respond to thousands on nonverbal cues and behaviors including postures, facial expression, eye gaze, gestures, and tone of voice. From our handshakes to our hairstyles, nonverbal details reveal who we are and impact how we relate to other people. In many cases, we communicate information in nonverbal ways using groups of behaviors. For example, we might combine a frown with crossed arms and unblinking eye gaze to indicate disapproval.

1. Facial Expression

Facial expressions are responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal communication. Consider how much information can be conveyed with a smile or a frown. While nonverbal communication and behavior can vary dramatically between cultures, the facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger and fear are similar throughout the world.What expressions do the pictures show below?

2. Gestures

Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate meaning without words. Common gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate numeric amounts. 

3. Paralinguistics

Paralinguistics refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language. This includes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection and pitch. Consider the powerful effect that tone of voice can have on the meaning of a sentence. When said in a strong tone of voice, listeners might interpret approval and enthusiasm. The same words said in a hesitant tone of voice might convey disapproval and a lack of interest.

4. Body Language and Posture

Posture and movement can also convey a great deal on information. These nonverbal behaviors can indicate feelings and attitudes.

5. Eye Gaze

Looking, staring and blinking can also be important nonverbal behaviors. When people encounter people or things that they like, the rate of blinking increases and pupils dilate. Looking at another person can indicate a range of emotions, including hostility, interest and attraction.

 

 

6. Appearance

Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles and other factors affecting appearance are also considered a means of nonverbal communication. Research on color psychology has demonstrated that different colors can evoke different moods. Appearance can also alter physiological reactions, judgments and interpretations. Just think of all the subtle judgements you quickly make about someone based on his or her appearance. These first impressions are important, which is why experts suggest that job seekers dress appropriately for interviews with potential employers.