What Is Quantitative Data?
The term quantitative data is used to describe a type of information that can be counted or expressed numerically. This type of data is often collected in experiments, manipulated and statistically analyzed. Quantitative data can be represented visually in graphs, histograms, tables and charts.Some examples of quantitative data include exact counts ('there were 789 students who attended the rally') or a type of measurement ('it was 78 degree Fahrenheit yesterday at 2 PM').
What Is Qualitative Data?
Data that approximates or characterizes but does not measure the attributes, characteristics, properties, etc., of a thing or phenomenon. Qualitative data describes whereas quantitative data defines.
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF
OBSERVATION
Advantages of Observation as A Method of Data Collection
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The main strength of observation is that it provides direct access to the social phenomena under consideration. Instead of relying on some kind of self-report, such as asking people what they would do in a certain situation, you actually observe and record their behaviour in that situation. This, in principle at least, avoids the wide range of problems associated with self-report.
In an interview situation or in response to a questionnaire item, for example, a person may not always provide accurate or complete information, or they might answer in ways that correspond to what is socially desirable. There is a recognised source of bias in self-report techniques referred to as a 'social desirability set', which means that in many spheres of social life there are socially desirable ways of behaving and, consciously or unconsciously, individuals will tend to respond in that way, although in the 'real world' they might behave differently. Asking children whether they would tend to be helpful to other children in certain situations, for example, would be susceptible to such a source of bias.
Diversity, Flexibility and Applicability
Observation can take diverse forms, from informal and unstructured approaches through to tightly structured, standardised procedures and can yield associated diverse types of data, both qualitative and quantitative. Observation, therefore, is applicable in a wide range of contexts.
Provision of a permanent record
Much of human social behaviour that may be of interest to the researcher is highly transient. The fact that all observation entails some form of recording means that it provides a permanent record of such events or behaviour, thus allowing further analysis or subsequent comparisons across time or location to be carried out.
Complementarity with other approaches
Using more than one technique of data collection through a process of triangulation is seen as highly desirable as an overarching research strategy. Therefore, another strength of observation is that it can effectively complement other approaches and thus enhance the quality of evidence available to the researcher.
Disadvantages of Observation
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One of the main disadvantages of observation is that it can be very time consuming and resource intensive. Observation may be a very desirable strategy to explore certain research questions, but it may simply not be feasible for the researcher with limited time and resources to carry out the observation and, therefore, alternative strategies would have to be pursued.
Observer Bias
A fundamental potential weakness of all observation is that it is susceptible to observer bias – subjective bias on the part of the observer – thus undermining the reliability and hence the validity of the data gathered. This can be because the observer records not what actually happened, but what they either wanted to see, expected to see, or merely thought they saw.
Observer Effect
Another potential weakness of observation is the so-called observer effect, which refers to the way in which the presence of an observer in some way influences the behaviour of those being observed. In order to avoid or minimise this, methods of observation sometimes attempt to be as unobtrusive as possible.
Participant observation
ReplyDeleteParticipant observation refers to a form of sociological research methodology in which the researcher takes on a role in the social situation under observation.
The social researcher immerses herself in the social setting under study, getting to know key actors in that location in a role which is either covert or overt, although in practice, the researcher will often move between these two roles.
The aim is to experience events in the manner in which the subjects under study also experience these events.
Sociologists who employ participant observation as a research tool aim to discover the nature of social reality by understanding the actor's perception, understanding and interpretation of that social world.
Whilst observing and experiencing as a participant, the sociologist must retain a level of objectivity in order to understand, analyse and explain the social world under study.
There are two main types of participant observation; covert and overt:-
Covert observation involves:
ReplyDelete-the social researcher participating fully without informing members of the social group of the reasons for her presence, thus the research is carried out secretly or covertly.
-contact with a 'gatekeeper', a member of the group under study who will introduce the researcher into the group.
Problems of covert observation include:
-the researcher having to become involved in criminal or dangerous activities, particularly where the research is studying a 'deviant' social group.
-problems of negotiating and having to act out forms of behaviour which the researcher may personally find unethical or distasteful.
-the researcher having to employ a level of deceit, since the researcher is essentially lies about the nature of her presence within the group.
-close friendships are often resulting from connections with members of the group under study and the covert nature of the research can put a tremendous strain on the researcher, both in and out of the fieldwork setting.
-the problem of 'going native', which refers to the fact that a researcher will cease to be a researcher and will become a full-time group participant.
Advantages of this type of covert participant role are:
-the researcher may gain access to social groups who would otherwise not consent to being studied.
-The avoidance of problems of observer effect, the conception that individuals' behaviour may change if they know they are being studied. However, there are problems of recording data.
Overt observation involves:
ReplyDelete-the researcher being open about the reason for her presence in the field of study since the researcher is given permission by the group to conduct her research
-the use of a 'sponsor', who is an individual likely to occupy a high status within the group, therefore lessening any potential hostility towards the researcher.
Problems with overt observation include:
Observer effect, where the behaviour of those under study may alter due to the presence of the researcher.
Advantages of the use of overt observation include:
-the avoidance of problems of ethics in that the group are aware of the researcher's role.
the group is being observed in its 'natural setting'.
-data may also be openly recorded.
-problems of 'going native' are avoided.
One famous example of covert participant observation is that undertaken by Erving Goffman in his study of mental hospitals, published as Stigma in 1968. Goffman worked in an asylum for the mentally ill as Assistant Athletic Director. His research was mainly covert, with only a couple of staff being privy to the knowledge of his research, and via this method he was able to uncover the 'unofficial reality' of life in a mental institution.
ReplyDeleteAn example of overt observation is William F. Whyte's study Street Corner Society, (1943) where he was protected from potential antagonism by his friendship with 'Doc', his sponsor. However, Whyte, despite employing an overt participant observer role, did increasingly come to view himself as 'one of the gang' during his fieldwork research.
Info taken from Internet sites
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